Spatial Variability of Greenhouse Crop Water Requirements in Alborz Province, Iran: A Comparison of the Almeria and Solar Radiation Methods

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI), Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran.

Abstract
Greenhouse cultivation is recognized as an effective strategy for enhancing water productivity; however, its success depends on model-based estimation of crop water requirements under regional climatic conditions. To date, no comprehensive study has been conducted on water requirements of greenhouse crops in Alborz Province. This study estimated net water requirements for ten major greenhouse crops in Alborz Province (solanaceous crops, leafy vegetables, and strawberry) using long-term meteorological data from nine weather stations. Reference evapotranspiration was calculated using the Almeria radiation (AR) and solar radiation (SR) methods, with crop coefficients applied to determine net requirements. Spatial patterns and method agreement were evaluated using boxplots, heatmaps, and regression. The results indicated that annual water requirements ranged from 833.8 to 1,189.7 mm, with bell pepper exhibiting the highest and cucumber the lowest requirements. Among solanaceous crops, bell pepper and eggplant showed the highest values and cucumber the lowest, while among leafy vegetables, cabbage exhibited the highest requirement and basil the lowest. A clear spatial gradient was observed, with Eshtehard, Nazarabad, and Meshkin Dasht showing the highest requirements, and Asara, Taleqan, Payam Airport, and Zidasht the lowest. The AR method consistently produced higher estimates than SR, while both methods showed similar spatial patterns and strong correlation. This study provides the first comprehensive database of estimated water requirements for major greenhouse crops in Alborz Province, serving as a preliminary reference for irrigation planning, water allocation, greenhouse licensing, and sustainable development in the region.

Keywords


Alborz Province Agricultural Jihad Organization. 2023. Statistical report on greenhouse cultivation in Alborz Province. Agricultural Jihad Organization of Alborz Province, Iran. (in Persian)
Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., & Smith, M. 1998. Crop evapotranspiration-Guidelines for computing crop water requirements-FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56. Fao, rome, 300(9), D05109. ISBN 92-5-104219-5
Al Tamimi, M., Green, S., Hammami, Z., Ammar, K., Al Ketbi, M., Al-Shrouf, A. M., ... & Clothier, B. 2022. Evapotranspiration and crop coefficients using lysimeter measurements for food crops in the hyper-arid United Arab Emirates. Agricultural Water Management272, 107826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.107826
Arvin, S. M. J., Salari, E., & Soufi, H. R. 2026. Influence of salicylic acid concentrations and spraying times on growth and physiology of eggplant. Greenhouse Plant Production Journal, 3(2), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.66224/gppj.3.2.1(in Persian)
Asli Charandabi, M. R., Mahjoobi, E., & Abdolabadi, H. 2025. Estimation of evapotranspiration and crop coefficient for bell pepper using the weighing method and empirical models (Case study: Hesargoli greenhouse, Varamin). Irrigation and Water Engineering, 15(3), 151-167. https://doi.org/10.22125/iwe.2025.496217.1848
Averbuch, N., & Moshelion, M. 2024. Evaluating evapotranspiration in a commercial greenhouse: A comparative study of microclimatic factors and machine-learning algorithms. bioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.01.11.575151
Azadsharaki, F., Javadi Moghaddam, J., & Zarei, G. 2021. Recognition and application conditions of greenhouse cover (Technical Manual No. 59803). Agricultural Engineering Research Institute. (in Persian)
Baille, A. 1996. Principles and methods for predicting crop water requirement in greenhouse environments. Cahier Options Méditerranéennes31, 177-187.
Baştuğ, R., Büyüktaş, D., Büyüktaş, K., Aydinsakir, K., Onus, A. N., & Karaca, C. 2024. Evapotranspiration and crop coefficients of some vegetable crops grown under greenhouse conditions. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 15(7), 3236-3259. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2024.024
Baudoin, W., Nersisyan, A., Shamilov, A., Hodder, A., Gutierrez, D., De Pascale, S., Nicola, S., Gruda, N., Urban, L., & Tanny, J. 2017. Good Agricultural Practices for greenhouse vegetable production in the South East European countries: Principles for sustainable intensification of smallholder farms (FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper No. 230, Vol. 230, pp. 1-449). FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/22b737e1-en (ISBN 978-92-5-109622-2)
Bayat, P., & Bayat, P. 2025. Deep learning–driven adaptive framework for precision greenhouse management based on species-specific needs. Greenhouse Plant Production Journal, 2(4), 28. https://doi.org/10.61882/gppj.2.4.28 (in Persian)
Bonachela, S., González, A. M., & Fernández, M. D. 2006. Irrigation scheduling of plastic greenhouse vegetable crops based on historical weather data. Irrigation Science, 25(1), 53-62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-006-0034-z
Cemek, B., & Demir, Y. 2005. Testing of the condensation characteristics and light transmissions of different plastic film covering materials. Polymer Testing, 24(3), 284-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2004.11.006
Dehghanpir, S., Bazrafshan, O., Ramezani Etedali, H., Holisaz, A., & Collins, B. 2024. Water scarcity assessment in Iran’s agricultural sector using the water footprint concept. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 26(11), 28995-29020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03852-3
Delavar, A., Mirlatifi, S. M., & Zarei, G. 2015. Water requirement and crop coefficient of Polianthes tuberose L. in Varamin. Iranian Journal of Irrigation and Drainage, 9(3), 480-488. (in Persian)
Ebrahimi, M., Rezaverdinejad, V., Besharat, S., & Abdi, M. 2018. A study of evapotranspiration as well as crop coefficient in Ocimum Basilicum L. growth process in greenhouse. Journal of Water and Irrigation Management, 8(1), 1-13. (in Persian)
Eshghi, S., Sarikhani, S., Shirdel, M., Davarzani, M., & Hosseini, S. 2026. The significance of controlled environments in shaping the future of fruit cultivation. Journal of Greenhouse and Plant Production, 1(4), 11. https://doi.org/10.61186/gppj.1.4.11. (in Persian)
Fernández, M. D., Bonachela, S., Orgaz, F., Thompson, R., López, J. C., Granados, M. R., Gallardo, M., & Fereres, E. 2010. Measurement and estimation of plastic greenhouse reference evapotranspiration in a Mediterranean climate. Irrigation Science, 28(6), 497-509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-010-0210-z
Fernández, M.D., Baeza, E., Céspedes, A., Pérez-Parra, J., & Gázquez, J.C. 2009. Validation of on-farm crop water requirements (PrHo) model for horticultural crops in an unheated plastic greenhouse. Acta Horticulturae, 807, 295-300. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2009.807.41
Fernández, M.D., Orgaz, F., Fereres, E., López, J.C., Céspedes, A., Pérez-Parra, J., Bonachela, S., & Gallardo, M. 2001. Programación del riego de cultivos hortícolas bajo invernadero en el sudeste español. Cajamar (Caja Rural Intermediterránea).
Gaafer, A. M. E. A., Mohammed, H. I., & Elfadil, A. D. 2024. Estimating reference evapotranspiration using Penman-Monteith (FAO-56-PM) method from limited data in fan and pad greenhouses. World News of Natural Sciences, 53, 49-59.
Gaafer, A. M. E. A., & Mohammed, H. I. 2024. Estimating fan and pad greenhouse reference evapotranspiration using FAO-56-Penman-Monteith and a simplified heat transfer approach for predicting internal temperature. World News of Natural Sciences, 53, 140-151.
Incrocci, L., Thompson, R. B., Fernandez-Fernandez, M. D., De Pascale, S., Pardossi, A., Stanghellini, C., Rouphael, Y., & Gallardo, M. 2020. Irrigation management of European greenhouse vegetable crops. Agricultural Water Management, 242, 106393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106393
Katsoulas, N., & Stanghellini, C. 2019. Modelling crop transpiration in greenhouses: Different models for different applications. Agronomy, 9(7), 392. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9070392
Keykhaei, F., Zarei, G., Ganji Khorramdel, N., & Sadeghi, S. 2020. Determination of water requirement of rose cultivars in hydroponic greenhouse. Journal of Water Research in Agriculture, 34(4), 531-542. (in Persian)
Khorsandi, M., Omidi, T., & van Oel, P. 2023. Water-related limits to growth for agriculture in Iran. Heliyon, 9(5), e16132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16132
Khoshsimaie Chenar, M., Noory, H., Liaghat, A., Soltani Salehabadi, F., & Motesharezadeh, B. 2025. Evaluation of the accuracy of different machine learning algorithms in predicting greenhouse cucumber crop evapotranspiration. Journal of Water and Irrigation Management, 15(3), 563-683. https://doi.org/10.22059/jwim.2025.382501.1100
Maraveas, C., Kotzabasaki, M. I., Bayer, I. S., & Bartzanas, T. 2023. Sustainable greenhouse covering materials with nano-and micro-particle additives for enhanced radiometric and thermal properties and performance. AgriEngineering, 5(3), 1347-1377. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering5030085
Moradi, M., Ghasemi, J., Aramyan, L., & Barati, A. A. 2026. Unraveling the challenges of knowledge and technology adoption within Iranian greenhouse farming. Results in Engineering, 31, 111357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2026.111357
Mozafari, M., Abbasifar, A., & ValizadehKaji, B. 2026. Quantitative, qualitative, and physicochemical characteristics of tomato as affected by foliar application of potassium silicate. Greenhouse Plant Production Journal, 3(1), 68-76. https://doi.org/10.66224/gppj.3.1.68 (in Persian)
Nikbakht, J., Hamed, Z., & Mokhtari, H. 2022. Determination of Sedum (Sedum cv. nevii) water requirement, crop coefficient, and water productivity in greenhouse conditions. Journal of Water and Sustainable Development, 9(2), 87-94. (in Persian)
Nikolaou, G., Neocleous, D., Katsoulas, N., & Kittas, C. 2019. Irrigation of greenhouse crops. Horticulturae, 5(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae5010007
Nouri, M., Homaee, M., Pereira, L. S., & Bybordi, M. 2023. Water management dilemma in the agricultural sector of Iran: A review focusing on water governance. Agricultural Water Management, 288, 108480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108480
Pereira, L. S., Paredes, P., López-Urrea, R., Hunsaker, D. J., Mota, M., & Shad, Z. M. 2021. Standard single and basal crop coefficients for vegetable crops, an update of FAO56 crop water requirements approach. Agricultural Water Management, 243, 106196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106196
Rahimikhoob, H., Sohrabi, T., & Delshad, M. 2020. Determination of water requirement and crop coefficient for basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) under controlled greenhouse. Iranian Journal of Soil and Water Research, 50(10), 2465-2472. https://doi.org/10.22059/IJSWR.2019.280405.668191 (in Persian)
Rezaverdinejad, V., Shabanian, M., Besharat, S., & Hassani, A. 2017. Determination of crop water requirement, crop coefficient and water use efficiency of greenhouse-grown cucumber and tomato (Case study: Urmia region). Journal of Soil and Plant Interactions, 8(3), 27-39. (in Persian)
Rezvani, S. M., Zarei, G., & Salemi, H. R. 2022. Evapotranspiration and crop coefficient of greenhouse cucumber in Hamedan region. Iranian Journal of Irrigation and Drainage, 16(5), 904-916. (in Persian)
Sepehri, S., Zarei, G., Azadsharaki, F., Rezvani, S. M., & Badrzadeh, D. 2026. Determination of water requirements for greenhouse crops in Alborz Province (Research Report No. 124-14-14-021-03021-030535). Agricultural Engineering Research Institute. (in Persian)
Shojaei-Nia, M., Soufi, H. R., Jabbari, M., & Mousavi-Fard, S. 2026. Stress-aware greenhouse climate control: Integrating plant physiology, intelligent environmental control, and energy management for sustainable protected horticulture. Greenhouse Plant Production Journal, 3(2), 62-81. https://doi.org/10.66224/gppj.3.2.62 (in Persian)
Sujitha, E., Shanmugasundaram, K., & Thiyagarajan, G. 2020. Estimation of crop coefficient for Marigold (Tagetes erecta (L.)) under drip irrigated greenhouse. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 12(2), 128-132. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.vi.2264
Toyin, F. J., Miguel, R. J., Gbenro, O. P., & Ebenezer, A. A. 2015. Greenhouse evapotranspiration and crop factor of Amaranthus cruentus grown in weighing lysimeters. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 10(34), 3453-3461. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2014.8886
Zarei, G., Salemi, H. R., Rezvani, S. M., & Esfandiari, M. 2018. Determination of water requirement of greenhouse cucumber across the country (Final Research Report No. 54247). Agricultural Engineering Research Institute. (in Persian)
Yuan, X., Zhou, Y., Zhou, S., & Wang, F. 2025. Agricultural and energy sectors dominate Iran’s water crisis: A GRACE-GLDAS quantification (2002–2023). Acta Geodynamica et Geomaterialia, 22(3), 393-404. https://doi.org/10.13168/AGG.2025.0027

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 30 September 2026

  • Receive Date 20 July 2026
  • Revise Date 20 August 2026
  • Accept Date 27 August 2026
  • First Publish Date 29 August 2026
  • Publish Date 30 September 2026